Supermax

The first supermax prison was built in 1954 in Mississippi, but such facilities remained rare until the beginning of this era. During the 1990s, over 25 of them are constructed, and by 1998 around 20,000 inmates are serving time in conditions that qualify for the supermax label. There is no one definition of "supermax," but the National Institute of Corrections has identified three hallmarks of such units. Supermax housing is physically separate from all others, incorporates a highly controlled and restrictive atmosphere, and houses inmates classified as high-risk and in need of specialized handling. Twenty-three-hour lock-down in a solitary cell is customary. During their remaining hour, prisoners have access to an outside cage built for one or to the law library. They are shackled when outside their cells.

Solitude was a primary feature of the early penitentiaries, too‹but in the supermax, it is considered a management tool, not the road to repentance. Ironically, the courts allow measures to be taken in the name of security and operations that would be considered cruel and unusual if used as part of the punitive strategy. The supermax trend raises considerable concerns among human rights groups. The conditions violate many standards and principles that were developed by the United Nations and agreed to by the U.S. Most prisoners are released back into society, even though studies show that such isolation takes a serious toll on inmates and evokes troubling psychological responses that may affect their future behavior.

"Pelican Bay" Andrew Lichtenstein, 1999